what is physiology | the study of how living organisms function |
what is pathophysiology? | when normal function has gone wrong |
what is comparative physiology? | comparing across species |
what is the dependent variable and where on the graph | the variable that responds to the change, y axis |
what is the independent variable and where on the graph | the variable that the researcher controls or changes to affect the dependent, x axis |
what is invitro | in a culture dish |
what is in vivo | in a living creature |
what is the process of developing drugs and treatments | in vitro first, secondly in vivo, then clinical trials |
what is muscle tissue | tissue specialised to generate mechanical force for contraction |
what is nervous tissue | tissue specialised for initiating, integrating and conducting electrical signals |
what is epithelial tissue | specialised cells that form membranes which cover body surfaces and line the inside of hollow organs and glands |
what is connective tissue and give one example | specialised to contain large amounts of extracellular material. blood |
what are the 3 types of muscle tissye | skeletel, cardiac and smooth |
what does skeletal muscle tissue do | contraction under voluntary control, produce movements of limbs |
what are cardiac muscle | interselected discs couple cardiac muscle cells mechanically and electrically |
where and what do smooth muscle do | in the walls of tubes in the body and involuntary contractions |
what do neurons conduct | impusles |
what are glial cells | supporting cells that do not conduct a nerve impulse but are essential for neuron function |
what is simple epithelium made of | single cell thick tissue |
what is stratified epithelium made of | thicker, consisting of multiple layer of cells |
what is stratified epithelium made of | thicker, consisting of multiple layer of cells |
what are epithelial cells named after | their shape |
what is squamous | flattened |
what is cuboidal | cube shaped |
what is columnar | column shaped, elongated |
where do epithelial cells rest | on extracellular protein layer called the basement membrane |
what do connective tissue cells do | connect, anchor and support the structures of the body |
what are the 4 primary types of connective tissue | connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood |
what is connective tissue proper composed of | protein fibres and gel like ground substance |
3 examples of connective tissue proper | loose connective tissue, dense regular connective tissue and adipose tissue |
what are cartilage composed of | cells called chondrocytes surrounded by a semi solid ground substance |
what is bone composed of | cells called osteoblasts trap mineral salts |
how many different types of cells in the body | approx 200 |
what is the structure of plasma membrane | selectively permeable, gives form and separates from the external environment |
what is the structure of cell organelles | membrane bound compartments that perform the function |
what is the interior of cells divided into | nucleus and cytoplasm |
what are the two membrane structures | integral and peripheral |
what is integral structure | closely associated with the membrane lipids, amphipathic , most span the entire membrane |
what is peripheral structure | do not associate with the non polar regions of the lipid in the interior membrane, surface bound to polar regions |
what are membrane junctions | junctions that physically join cells |
what are desmosomes | a membrane junction that serve as anchoring points for cadherins |
what are tight junctions | two adjacent plasma membranes joining together so that no extracellular space remains between them |
what do gap junctions consist of and what do they do | protein channels and linking the cytosis of adjacent cells in muscle cells of the heart |
what do dna form in the nucleus | threads of chromatin |
what barrier surrounds the nucleus and what is it made of | the nuclear envelope, composed of two lipid bilayers with nuclear pores |
what er has ribosomes | rough |
what happens in the smooth er | production of lipid based molecules |
what happen in the rough er | protein synthesis that are after secreted by the cell or distributed to other cell organelles |
what does the golgi apparatus do | packaging molecules alled vesicles and can be transported to the cell membrane |
what are endosomes | membrane bound vesicular and tubular structures that lie between the plasma membrane and the golgi apparatus |
what are the endosomes function | sorting, modifying ad directing vesicular traffic in cells |
what are lysosomes and whats their function | spherical organelle surrounded by a single membrane and act to break down bacteria and the debris from dead cells that have been engulfed by a cell |
what are peroxisomes | moderately dense oval bodies enclosed by a single membrane |
what are one of the reaction products in peroxisomes | hydrogen peroxide H2O2 |
what are vaults | cytoplasmic structures that are made of proteins and a type of RNA called vault RNA (vRNA) |
what is a cytoskeleton | a filamentous network that is associated with processes that maintain and change cell shape and produce cell movements |
what are 3 classes of cytoskeleton | actin filaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules |
what are actin filaments composed of and what do they do | monomoers of the protein G-actin and determining cell shape |
what are intermediate filaments made of and what do they do | twisted strands of several different proteins including keratin, desmin and lamin. Contributes to cell shape and help anchor the nucleus |
what are microtubules | hollow tubes about 25 nanometer in diameter |
what is cilia | hair like extensions on the surfaces of most cells, have a central core of microtubules |
what do cilia do | the movements of cilia help propel the content of the organ along the surface of the epithelium |
what are solutes | substances that dissolve in water |
what are solvents | the liquids that solutes dissolve in |
how are solutions formed | solutes dissolving in solvent |
what is solute concentration | the amount of solute present in a unit volume of solution |
what is the formula for molar solution | Molar solution (M) = moles solute / litre solution |
how much molar solution = litres | 1M solution = 1mol/litre |
what is molal solution | moles solute / kg solvent |
what is the molecular weight of a molecule equal to | the sum of atomic mass of all atoms in the molecule |
what is formula for pH | pH = - log [H+] or pH = log 1 / H+ concentration |
what H+ concentration does pure water have | 10^-7 |
what is an acidic solution | a solution that has more H+ ions than OH- ions |
what is an alkaline solution | a solution that has more OH- ions than H+ ions |
what is a base | any substance that can accept a hydrogen ion |
what are buffers | a system of molecules and ion that act to prevent changes in hydrogen concentration. |
what is an Hbuffer | buffer + H+ |
what is the formula for density of liquids | p=m/v |
when does pressure increase | with depth |
what is the formula for pressure | P= Pa + pgh |
what is Pa and pgh | Pa is atmospheric pressure, p is density, g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is depth |
what is flow | the volume of liquid moved per unit time |
how is flow measured | Litres/minute |
what is resistance | how difficult it is for the fluid to flow between to points |
what is the formula for fluid flow | F = ΔP / R |
what are the 3 factors that influence resistance | viscosity of fluid, length of tube, inner radius of tube |
what is resistance formula | R = 8Lη / πr4 |
what is η, L and r | viscosity, length, inner radius |
what does body fluid refer to | watery solution of dissolved substances in the body |
what is the extracellular fluid | the fluid in the blood and in spaces surrounding the cells |
what is pasma | fluid portion of blood |
what is the interstitual fluid | 75-80% of fluid that lies around and between cells |
what is the formula for extracellular fluid | = sum of the plasma and interstitual fluid volumes |
what is intracellular fluid | the fluid located inside the cells and accounts for 67% of all fluid in the body |
what is simple diffusion | the movement of molecules from one location to another |
what is the second law of thermodynamics | a closed system will always tend towards maximum entropy or disorder |
what is flux | the amount of material crossing a surface |
what is net flux | the difference between the 2 one-way fluxes and the net flux will reach zero at diffusion equilibrium |
what does the net flux depend on | temperature, mass, surface area and the medium |
what is ficks first law of diffusion formula | J = PA(C0-C1) |
what is J, P, A, C0, and C1 | rate of diffusion, membrane permeability coefficient, surface area, conc. outside cell and conc inside cell |
what does rate of diffusion depend on | magnitude of conc. difference
permeability of the membrance to the molecules
temperature of solution
surface area of the membrane |
what can form ion channels | integral membrane proteins |
what are transporters | conformational changes of integral membrane proteins |
what do transporters do | they bring solutes that are too polar to diffuse through the membrane and too large to diffuse through the ion channels |
what is mediated transport | the diffusion of polar and too large solutes through ion channels |
what does the rate of solute flux through mediated transport depend on | solute conc.
affinity of the transporters for the solute
number of transporters in the membrane
rate at which the conformational change in the transport protein occurd |
what are the two types of mediated transport | fascillitated diffusion
active transport |
what is fascillitated diffusion | uses a transporter to move solute and always goes from higher to lower concentration. no energy required |
what is active transport | uses energy to move a substance against its conc. gradient |
what are the two types of active transport | primary active transport
secondary active transport |
what is primary active transport | direct use of ATP |
what is secondary active transport | use of electrochemical gradient |
what is the pump and where is it found | Na+/K+ - ATPase and it is found in every cell |
what does the pump do | maintains the distribution of high intracellular K+ and low intracellular Na+ |
what are the two binding sites for transporters | cotransport = symport
countertransport = antiport |
what is osmosis | the net movement of water molecules across a membrane |
what is aquaporins | membrane proteins that fasfillitate osmosis |
what is osmolarity | the total solute conc. of a solution |
how much is 1 osmol equal to | 1 osmol = 1 mol of solute particles |
the higher the osmolarity, the lower the ?? | lower the water conc. |
what is osmotic pressure | the pressure that must be applied to the solution to prevent net flow of water into it |
what is a semi permeable membrane | a membrane permeable to water but not to the solutes |
what are non penetrating solutes | solutes that cant travel through a semi permeable membrane |
the osomotic pressure is greater, when the osmolarity of ???? | of the solution is greater |
what are the 3 tonic solutions | isotonic
hypotonic
hypertonic |
what is isotonic | having the same conc. of non penetrating solutes as extracellular fluid |
what is hypotonic | having a lower conc. of non penetrating solutes as extracellular fluid |
what is hypertonic | having a higher conc. of non penetrating solutes as extracellular fluid |
what can happen to cells if the extracellular osmolarity changes | the cells can shrink or swell, causing it to rupture |
what are the 3 osmolarity of solutions | isoomotic
hypoosmotic
hyperosmotic |
what is isoosmotic | a solution containing 300 milliOsmol/L of solute |
what is hypoosmotic | a solution containing less than 300 milliOsmol/L of solute |
what is hyperosmotic | a solution containing more than 300 milliOsmol/L of solute |
what is endocytosis | the movement of molecules into the cell via vesicles |
what are the 3 common types of endosytosis | pinocytosis
phagocytosis
recepter - mediated endocytosis |
what is exocytosis | the movement of molecules out of the cell via vesicles |
what are the two functions exocytosis performs | replaces portions of the plasma membrane
provides a route |
what are the two epithelial transports | paracellular pathway
transcellular pathway |
what is paracellular pathway | diffusion occurring between adjacent cells of the epithelium |
what is transcellular pathway | diffusion into an epithelial cell across either the apical or basolateral membrane |
where else does transcellular pathway occur | through the cytosol and exit across the opposite membrane |
what i homeostasis | the physiological variables in a state of dynamic constancy |
what is the main purpose of physiological variables | to maintain homeostasis |
what results from a deviation from homeostasis | diseases |
what is dynamic constancy | levels remaining constant over long periods of time |
what does homeostasis do after eating | returns the glucose levels back to their set points |
what are tightly controlled | variables that barely change over time |
what is the homeostatic control system | the compensatory mechanisms that mediate the response to changes in physiologically controlled variables |
what is steady state | when energy is continuously added to maintain the stable condition |
what is set point | the desired value of the regulated variable that the system attempts to maintain |