| Extra pair copulation ECP’s | new discovery thanks to DNA, shows that in all breeding types we have raising young of others in same species. In many monogamous birds the likely hood is 10-25% raising young that is not their own can be up to 80%. Benefits to males is increased fitness by having more young, insurance against mate infertility and possible future mate acquisition. Costs, sperm depletion, increased rick of cuckoldry, less paternal care, and higher chances of divorce. Benefits to females in insurance against mate infertility, genetically diverse young, improved genetic diversity and access to best resources. Costs, mate retaliation, risk of injury, harassment. Paternal care declines with increased ability for EPC’s. |
| Play behaviour | activity that appears to have no purpose that’s behaviour is similar to behaviour of use in adults. Can be, locomotor play, predatory play, object play or social play |
| Locomotor play | juvenile animals carrying out movement. Similar to physical actions of adults but with no immediate or obvious goal. Functions as motor development, and motor skill training. |
| Predatory play | similar to locomotor play, builds agility and strength. Juveniles practicing chasing hunting ect. Evidence liking predatory prey and future hunting success is debatable. Behaviour not limited to juveniles |
| Object play | can overlap with predatory play when object used in foraging. E.g. birds breaking eggs with rocks. Non predatory object play develops handling motor skills, nest building, is most advanced in primates. |
| Social play | juveniles exbibit behaviour similar to competitive or aggressive behaviour in adults. E.g. games of tag but with no actual injuries. Allows to learn to deal with others in groups. May develop relationships and status early. |
| Bekoff and Byers 1992 | accepted theory that play is develop adult fight skills, social bonding, cognitive and innovative abilities and as a form of energy control. A relatively risk-free motor and behaviour training. |
| Ficken 1977 | examined avian play and suggested that play, enhances muscular development, encourages discoveries and experimentations, and adjusts young to relationships that occur in adulthood. |
| Play and sexes | in most animal’s play is the same across gender. In some usually polygynous ones play in sexes is different, females showing more nurturing play and males more aggressive. |
| Communication | action form one organism that effects the behaviour of another and is adaptive to both. Comes in modes, visual, vibrational, auditory, electrical, and chemical. All travel in waves. Limited by ability to create and perceive signal. |
| Signal | a behaviour that conveys information form one organism to another. As signal modified by natural selection is called a display. |
| Discrete signal | can be displayed in an on and off manner. The same regardless of strength. |
| Graded signals | increased variability. Signals varies in relation to motivation or intent behind behaviour. |
| Deceitful signalling | sender benefits and receiver does not e.g. mimicry. |
| Incidental signalling | negative effects on signaller and benefits on receiver. |
| Spiteful signalling | both have negative effect. Rare outside of humans. |
| Cooperative signalling | both receiver and signaller benefit. E.g. alarm signals. |
| Handicap principle | Amotz Zahavi early 1970’s said all costly signals were believable as would be too hard to lie about. |
