| What makes non living organisms different from living organisms? | natural selection |
| How was vitalism falsified? | When urea was synthesized in 1828 by Wohler using silver isocyanate and sodium chloride it showed that there was no need for a 'vital' factor |
| Why are carbon compounds so stable and used for life? | Because they're stronger than intermolecular forces, given that they can form up to four covalent bonds, making them very stable |
| What are the elements in carbohydrates and what's the ratio in them? | CHO 1:2:1 |
| What are some features of an alpha d glucose molecule? | Tiene 6 esquinitas, carbon en cada una excepto oxygen en la top right one, tiene un down down up down sequence. Y beta d glucose mas bien es up down up down (se usa en plantas to make cellulose). Tiene un CH2OH en el top left corner, y hay un hydrogen attached al otro lado de cada carbon |
| What are some features de un ribose diagram? | Tiene 5 esquinitas, up down down, CH20H en el top left corner, carbon en cada esquina y oxygen en el very top, un hydrogen attached al otro lado del carbon |
| How can a disaccharide be recognized? What kind of bond is between them? What carbon bond is between branched monosaccharides? | by its double ring structure, and they have a glycosidic bond. Theres a 1-6 carbon bond between branched monosaccharides |
| Name 3 disaccharides, how theyre made and their products. Remember they are formed by condensation reactions | glucose + glucose = maltose + h2o
glucose + fructose = sucrose + h2o
glucose+ galactose = lactose + h2o |
| Talk about cellulose | The glucose monomers alternate, that's why it looks straight. It's also unbranched. Only hydrogen bonds form here to give high tensile strength for plant cell walls. polymer de beta d glucose |
| Talk about starch | There are two forms of starch. Amylose is unbranched. Amylopectin is branched, and this is why more glucose can be attached or detached from amylopectin. polymer of alpha d glucose |
| Talk about glycogen | it's also a polymer of alpha d glucose, and also branched like amylopectin. Por eso se ven iguales, aunque glycogen is actually moRe branched than amylopectin. It's used for energy storage in animals, whereas starch is used for energy storage in plants. It's insoluble in water so osmosis doesnt occur |
| Whats a key difference between carbs and lipids in terms of elemental ratios? | lipids contain less oxygen compared to carbon than carbs |
| Describe triglycerides? | three fatty acid tails linked to one glycerol, ester bonds between fatty acid and glycerol, and three water produced for every tail |
| Describe phospholipid in the context of lipids | two fatty acid tails linked to one glycerol. Instead of the third fatty acid tail there is a phosphate group (hydrocarbon tails y phosphate head!! :D) |
| How do you recognize steroids y give four examples? | They have a four ring structure. testosterone, progesterone, estrogen, cholesterol |
| Whats the effect of a trans fat not being bent? | They have a higher melting and boiling point, and that why theyre solid fat at room temperature, whereas cis fatty acids are oils |
| What makes a fatty acid unsaturated or saturated? What do they look like? | There's usually 14-20 carbons joined by single covalent bonds, with hydrogen attached to every single carbon. there's a methyl group on one end and a carboxyl group on the other end. they're saturated when theyre joined by a DOUBLE covalent bond, and you can have your trans saturated version with hydrogen atoms on opposite sides of the covalent carbon bond, or the cis version, where the hydrogen atoms are on the same side |
| Where is glycogen and fat stored? What carbon compound do they represent? | Glycogen is in the liver (carbs), and fat in adipose tissue (lipids) |
| Three reasons why lipids act as more effective storages of energy | 1. No water is associated with lipids, whereas theres 2g of water associated to a gram of carbs
2. lipids add half as much to body mass as carbs would to store the same amount of energy
3. there is more energy released per gram of lipid in cell respiration than per gram of carb |
| Examples of anabolism? | protein synthesis in ribosome, polymerization of starch, glycogen or cellulose, photosynthesis |
| examples of catabolism? | breaking down food in the mouth with enzymes, cell respiration, decomposers breaking down carbon compounds |
| What's the structure of an amino acid? | an amine group (NH2), un carbon in the middle, un hydrogen attached to carbon, un carboxyl al otro lado, y el R group attached al carbon que es el que varía |
| Where is the peptide bond? | es la rayita entre el C-N entre el carboxyl y amine group de dos AA |
| Como se hace para saber cuantos AA sequences pueden haber en un polypeptide? And are polypeptides branched? | THEYRE NOT branched, and you just do 20^power of how many amino acids there are en ese polypeptide |
| Why is the proteome different from the genome? | Because you need different proteins for different cell activities and it can change throughout an individual's lifetime |
| Name the six proteins esas and their functions | 1. rubisco: fixes co2 to the atmosphere
2. rhodopsin: makes retina cells photoreceptive
3. insulin: reduced glucose levels in blood
4. immunoglobulin: acts as an antibody
5. spider silk: structural protein to catch prey and suspend spider
6. collagen: structural protein that prevents tearing of skin |
| What are some benefits of immobilized enzymes? how can you immobilize them? | They can be reused, theyre not contaminated by other enzymes, and the enzyme concentration is higher. you can immobilize them by entrapping them in a gel/membrane, attaching them to a surface like glass |
| What are some benefits of lactose-free milk? | Good for lactose intolerants, galactose and glucose are sweeter than LACTOSE, so less added sugar is needed, and glucose and galactose are fermented faster by bacteria too so production is sped up |
| Acuérdese de este ejemplo de limiting factors, pero for now, cual es el impact de all three limiting factors in photolysis. what is photolysis? | Photolysis is the splitting of water molecules to get high energy electrons to turn co2 into glucose. low light intensity doesnt allow for fast enough production of ATP to convert co2 into glucose w high energy electrons, low co2 concentration leaves a lower collision rate between rubisco and co2, and low or too high temperature also impact activity in rubisco |
| what is photosynthesis, formula? | the production of carbon compounds using light energy. co2+water --> glucose + OXYGEN |
| Difference between an absorption and actions spectrum? | An absorption spectrum shows the amount of wavelength that a particular pigment absorbs, whereas an action spectrum shows how a certain wavelength impacts the rate of photosynthesis, how much of that wavelength is used |
| Define cell respiration | controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP |
| Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic cell respiration | An: no oxygen needed, lower yield of ATP (2), uses glucose ONLY as a substrate, makes CO2 and ethanol in yeast and lactic acid in humans
Aer: oxygen needed, higher yield of ATP (38), uses glucose or fat as a substrate (de donde lo saca), makes co2 in humans but also water |
| Why cant anaerobic respiration go on too long? But what are some benefits of it? | because the h+ ions it releases would make the blood's pH too low soon enough. however, it maximizes muscle contractions and supplies ATP at a faster rate |
| How is DNA structured, osea how are the different parts of a nucleotide bonded between themselves, and how is one base bonded to another one? What's the difference between RNA and DNA? | The bond between the phosphate group, pentose sugar, and nucleotide base is covalent. The phosphate group of a nucleotide bonds with the pentose sugar of the next through covalent bonds too. However there is a hydrogen bond between the nucleotide bases; 2 between adenosine and thymine and 3 between cytosine and guanine. Also note that there are two strands of DNA and they're antiparallel. RNA is single stranded and has ribose instead of deoxyribose as nucleic acid |
| Explain DNA replication | 1. DNA helicase unwinds the two strands
2. Primase adds RNA primers to mark where the copying of the base sequence will start
3. DNA polymerase va haciendo covalent bonds between nucleotides, adding them in the leading strand 5' to 3' direction. Luego it adds the nucleotides in the lagging strand poco a poco
4. exonuclease takes primers away
5. DNA polymerase fills gap again
6. ligase seals fragments between DNA to make two continuous strands |
| Explain Transcription | Its purpose is to make a RNA copy of the DNA to send to the ribosomes to synthesize ribosomes.
RNA polymerase separates the DNA strands to use one as a template (antisense). It adds nucleotides to the RNA strand that will match the DNA. RNA strand is released and DNA recoils. |
| Explain translation | mRNA binds to ribosome. Meanwhile, there's a tRNA molecule around with an amino acid that corresponds to its series of anticodons. In 2's the tRNA molecules attach to the mRNA codons in order to release their amino acid and gradually create an amino acid chain, until a stop codon in the mRNA appears. |
| Why is water polar? | Water's polarity occurs when there's an unequal sharing of electrons. The hydrogen atoms are more attracted to the electrons than water in the covalent bond that joins them, so hydrogen is slightly polar and water slightly negative, |
| how do four different substances travel in blood according to their polarity? | 1. NaCl travels as Na+ and Cl+ ions just fine
2. oxygen isn't polar so it has to bind to hemoglobin to travel in blood
3. cholesterol is insoluble so it has to travel in lipoprotein, which is coated in phospholipid and proteins
4. glucose y amino acids too |
| List the properties of water according to dipolarity and hydrogen bonding | Dipolarity
Adhesion: due to dipolarity, water adheres to other polar hydrophilic substances, such as water and cellulose in cell walls. Water draws more water from the xylem to keep the plant's walls moist and ready for gas exchange
Solvent: many substances are polar and so can dissolve easily in water. Very important for metabolic processes
Hydrogen bonding
Cohesion: water molecules cohere to each other and draw water from the xylem of a tree to the top without breaking
Thermal qualities: due to hydrogen bonding, water has a high latent heat of vaporization which makes it a great coolant, and also a high specific heat capacity which makes it a stable environment for most habitats around the world, and its high boiling point makes it liquid and therefore suitable to act as a habitat |
