| Exchange of nucleotide sequences often occurs between | Homologous sequences |
| Cells with DNA molecules that contain new nucleotide sequences | recombinants |
| What seals nicked ends in new combinations | ligase |
| Difference between horizontal and vertical gene tranfer | Vertical gene transfer is passing of genes from parent to next generation whereas horizontal is between two different mature bacteria |
| 3 types of horizontal gene transfer | Transformation, transduction, conjugation |
| Define transformation | Bacteria takes up naked DNA from environment |
| Was the live R or S strain supposed to kill the mice | S strain |
| Define transduction | Transfer of DNA via replicating virus |
| The virus in transduction must be able to infect what | donor and reciepient cells |
| Types of transduction | generalized and specialized |
| What do phages enzymes do upon entering host cell | degrades host cell DNA |
| what happens after host DNA degradation | new phages are produced to engulf phage DNA |
| What else happens due to this | Host DNA is taken by accident |
| define conjugation | Transfer of F+ plasmid |
| How does F+ attach to F- cell | Using its sex pilus |
| What is an HFR cell | F+ incorporated in host DNA |
| End result of HFR transfer | Reciepient is still F- |
| Segments of DNA that move from one location to another in the same or different molecule | Transposons |
| Transposons all contain | palindromic sequences at end |
| Frameshift insertions that occur due to transposons | Transposition |
| Two types of transposons | jumping and replication transposons |
| Which type of transposon cannot transfer onto a plasmid | Jumping transposon |
| Type of transposon that contains genes not related to transposition | complex transposon |
| simplest transposon contains what (2) | one gene, 2inverted repeats |
| Difference between cide and statis/static | Cide is killing whereas statis is just inhibiting growth |
| Reduction of pathogens and viruses on living tissues | Antisepsis |
| 2 examples of antisepsis | iodine and alcohol |
| Due to antisepsis being used on living tissues, what precaution is taken | Its strength is reduced |
| An environment or procedure free from pathogenic contaminants | Aseptic |
| Examples of cides | fungicides, germicides and virucides |
| Examples of germicides (3) | ethylene and propylene oxides, aldehydes |
| removal of microbes by mechanical means | degermining |
| 2 ways of degerming | handwashing and alcohol swabbing before injections |
| destruction of microbes and germs on a nonliving tissue | disinfection |
| Four examples of disinfectants | soaps, alcohols, aldehydes, phenolics |
| What does pasteurization do? | Just prevents more microbes from growing but they are stil present |
| Removal of pathogens from objects to meet public health standards | Sanitization |
| Examples of sanitation | washing dishes and tableware with scalding water |
| killing of all microbes and viruses on or in an object | sterilization |
| two examples of sterilization | preparation of culture and canned food |
| typically achieved by steam under pressure | sterilization |
| How do antimicrobial agents destroy microbes(2) | altering cell wall/membrane and damge to protein/nucleic acid |
| what happens if cell wall is damaged | cell loses osmoregulation |
| What happens if cell membrane is altered | controls movement of solutes in and out so cellular contents may leak out |
| what are the four ideals for a microbial antiagent | inexpensive, fast-acting, stable during storage, harmless top the object it is protecting |
| Generally what is the most resistant microbe | Prions |
| What is the most susceptible microbe | enveloped viruses |
| Which is more susceptible; gram positive or negative | gram positive |
| What is the second and third most resistant microbe | bacterial endospores and mycobacteria |
| Why is mycobacteria very resistant | Does not have cell wall to be targeted |
| classification of germicide where all pathogens including endospores are killed | High-level germicide |
| what do intermediate-level germicides do | kill fungal spores, viruses, cysts and pathogenic bacteria |
| what type of microbe would a low-level germicide kill (not egs) | Vegetative ones |
| What biosafety level would you use for ebola/anthrax | BSL-4 |
| Which biosafety level involves handling microbes in a hood | BSL-3 |
| what mechanism is used to prevent microbes from leaving a room | negative pressure |
| Protective suits would have what type of pressure | positive |
| what is the lowest temperature needed to kill all cells in broth | thermal death point |
| time needed to sterilize volume of liquid at a set tremp | thermal death time |
| Which is more effective; dry or moist heat | Moist heat |
| 4 moist heat methods for controlling microbes | boiling, autoclaving, pasteurization, ultrahigh-temp sterilization |
| Aurtoclaving uses what (2) | pressure and steam |
| In sterile indicators, what does a yellow medium mean | Autoclaved objects are not sterile |
| What color indicates sterile objects | Red |
| ultra sterilized liquids can be store where | room temperature |
| how is ultra-temp sterilization done | heated at 140C for 3 secs then rapid cooling |
| egs of a dry heat method | incinerator |
| what does dry heat do(2) | Denatures protein and oxidizes metabolic and structural chemicals |
| How is dry heat requirements different from moist heat(2) | higher temp and longer time period |
| What does refidgeration do to microbes | halts its growth not kill it |
| What type of freezing is more effective | slow freezing |
| Another name for drying | desiccation |
| Another name for freeze-drying | lyophilization |
| Lyophilization prevents formation | Damaging ice crystals |
| Lyophilization is typically used for | long-term preservation of microbial cultures |
| Which method uses size | filtration |
| Which pore size would be used to filter yeasts and unicellular algae | 3 microliter |
| Which pore size would you use if its only largest bacteria | 0.45microliter |
| Pore size for largest virus and most bacteria | 0.22 |
| How does osmotic pressure prevent microbes | High salt/ sugar concentration inhibits growth |
| bacteria/fungi which would survive better in a hypertonic solution | fungi |
| Two types of radiation | electromagnetic and particulate radiation |
| describe particulate radiation | high-speed subatomic particles freed from their atoms |
| describe electromagnetic radiation | energy without mass travelling in waves at the speed of light |
| ionizing radiation involves what three things | x-rays, gamma rays, electron beams |
| What is the problem with using electron beams radiation to kill microbes | Effective but does not penetrate well |
| What is the problem with using gamma rays radiation to kill microbes | Penetrate well but take hours to kill |
| What is the problem with using x-rays radiation to kill microbes | requires long time to kill |
| what does ionizing radiation do(3) | disrupts h-bonds, oxidize double bonds, create hydroxyl radicles |
| nonionizing radiation therapy uses | uv light |
| nonionizing is used for (3) | disinfecting air, transparent fluid, surfaces of objects |
| What does the uv light cause | pyrimidine dimers |
| Does nonionizing radiation form covalent bonds | yes |
| example of phenolics not used anymore cuz bacteria has grown resistant to it | triclosan |
| of all the phenolics, which has the highest killing rate | phenol |
| what limits phenol use | very reactive so can be used on a few things |
| phenolics is most effective in the presence of? | organic matter |
| 2 examples of phenolics | orthocresol and triclosan |
| why might one not want to be near phenol | very bad odor |
| What does phenolics affect in bacteria | denature their proteins and cell membranes |
| what level of disinfectant is alcohol | intermediate |
| How do alcohols kill bacteria | by denaturing proteins and disrupting cytoplasmic membranes |
| which is more effective; handwashing or sanitizer | hand sanitizer due to alcohol present |
| Another intermediate level antimicrobial chemical | halogens |
| how do halogens kill microbes | denaturation of proteins |
| An example of high level disinfectants and antiseptics | oxidizing agents |
| three examples of oxidizing agents | peroxides, ozone, paracetic acid |
| what is ozone used for | treatment of drinking water |
| what is paracetic acid used for | sterilizing equipments |
| function of hydrogen peroxide | disinfect and sterilize surfaces |
| what is hydrogen peroxide not useful for and why | open wounds due to catalase activity |
| surfactants a what level of what | low level disinfectants |
| examples of surfactants(2) | soaps and detergents |
| surfactants are good-----agents but not ----- | degerming , antimicrobial |
| how do surfactants function | disrupts cellular membranes |
| what compounds are surfactants | ammonium(quats) |
| quats are made of | hydrophobic tail and ammonium ion |
| are heavy metals cidal | no |
| what type of agents are heavy metals(2) | bacteriostatic and fungistatic |
| %silver nitrate was once used for | blindness prevention caused by N. gonorrhoeae |
| compounds containing CHO terminals | aldehydes |
| do aldehydes kill or prevent growth | kill |
| how do aldehydes kill microbes | crosslinking preventing things from moving in or out of the cell |
| 2 egs od aldehydes | formalin glutaraldehyde |
| how do gaseous agents denature proteins and dna of microbes | by crosslinking functional groups |
| examples of things that would use these agents and why | plastics, petri dishes cuz heat cannot be applied to them |
| disadvantages of gaseous agents(4) | hazardous, explosive, poisonous, carcinogenic |
| 2 egs of anti microbial enzymes | lysozyme prionzyme |
| how do lysozyme function | digests peptidoglycan |
| three types of antimicrobials | antibiotics, semisynthetics, synthetic chemicals |
| what are antimicrobials typically used for | treat disease |
| 3 methods for evaluating disinfectants and antiseptics | phenol coefficient, use-dilution test, in-use test |
| first step of use-dilution | metal cylinders are dipped into broth culture of bacteria |
| second step of use-dilution | cylinder is immersed into dilution of disinfectant |
| third step of use-dilution | cylinders removed, washed and placed into tube of medium |
| which test allows to know treatment time and concentration | in-use test |
| first step of in-use test | swabs are taken from objects before and after application of disinfectants |
| second step of in-use test | swabs inoculated into growth medium and incubated |
| third step of inuse test | medium monitored for growth |
| define drugs | anything that affects physiology in any manner |
| drugs that act against diseases | chemotherapeutic agents |
| chemically altered antibiotics | semisythesis |
| antimicrobials that are completely synthesized in a lab | synthetics |
| naturally occuring antibiotics and chemically altered ones which are more effective | chemically altered |
| penicillin is gained from | fungus |
| penicillin is effective on what type of bacteria and why | gram positive cuz it works on peptidoglycan |
| which bacteria is confused with fungi | streptomyces griseus |
| why are antibiotics not used on common cold | cold is caused by viruses not bacteria!!! |
| list three qualities of an ideal antimicrobes | selective toxicity, lack of side effects, cidal vs static |
| list the three other qualities of ideal microbes | little resistance to development, broad spectrum of activity, favorable pharmokinetics |
| meaning of pharmacokinetics | how it is ingested, metabolized and excreted |
| meaning of broad spectrum of activity | affect more microbes |
| 6 mechanisms of action of microbial drugs | inhibtion of attachment/entry, DNA/RNA synthesis, general metabolic pathway, cytoplasmic membrane, protein, cell wall |
| why is inhibition of microbial protein synthesis highly selective toxicity | we have different dna than microbes |
| which inhibition is common with anti viral | inhibition of DNA/RNA synthesis |
| how does penicillin inhibit growth | contains b lactam that prevent cross linking of NAM and NAG of peptidoglycan |
| what happens after the inhibition of crosslinking between nam and nag | cell bursts due to osmotic pressure |
| two examples of natural beta lactam | penicillin G, cephalothin |
| two semisynthetic beta lactams | methicillin and imipenem |
| blocks transport of NAG and NAM from cytoplasm | bacitracin |
| disrupts mycolic acid formation in mycobacterial | isoniazid and ethambutol |
| isoniazid and ethambutol can only work on which type of microbes | acid fast bacteria |
| semisynthetic beta lactams are more suitable in what environments | acidic environments |
| how do semisynthetic beta lactams affect existing peptidoglycan | Nothing, only prevents new formation |
| would it be effective on growing cells, what else | only growing cells |
| fungal cells are composed of? | polysaccharides not found in mammals |
| what inhibits the enzyme that synthesizes glucan | echinocandins |
| part of human that also has 70s ribosomes | mitochondria |
| what causes change in the 30s shape. | aminoglycosides like streptomycin |
| what does 30s change cause | misreading mRNA |
| What blocks docking site of tRNA | tetracycline and some aminoglycosides |
| what blocks peptide bond formation | chloramphenicol |
