| What is energy? | The capacity to do work |
| Kinetic energy | Energy of motion (radiant, thermal, motion, electrical, etc.) |
| Potential energy | Stored energy (chemical, mechanical, gravitational, nuclear) |
| What is the first law of thermodynamics? | Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed (total amount of energy remains constant). |
| Chemical energy | Energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules (batteries, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and coal) |
| What is the second law of thermodynamics? | Entropy- When energy is converted from one form to another, the amount that is in useful forms decreases (no process is 100% efficient) |
| Exergonic reaction | Reactions that releases energy |
| Endergonic reaction | Reactions that require energy input |
| What is ATP? | Adenosine Triphosphate- the principal energy carrier in cells (high energy). Cells can generate ATP from food to do cellular work. |
| What is ADP? | Adenosine Diphosphate- ATP loses a phosphate during a reaction (low energy) |
| How is ATP used? | To contract muscles (involves motor proteins performing mechanical work), to facilitate chemical reactions, for active transport (transporting proteins in the plasma membrane). |
| How does the ATP cycle work? | Starts with cellular respiration; chemical energy is harvested from fuel molecules, ADP gains a phosphate to form ATP, the ATP is then used for cellular work. |
| Metabolism | All the reactions that take place in a cell. |
| Catalysts | Speed up reactions without being used up or permanently altered (enzymes in cells serve as biological catalysts). Reduce the activation energy reactions. |
| Enzymes | Typically proteins, structure includes a "pocket," the active site, where substrates bind, active sites have a distinctive shape for specificity, and help control the rate of reactions in a cell. |
| Factors that influence enzyme function | pH, temperature, and inhibitory compounds |
| How does pH and temperature affect enzyme function? | Some enzymes only work in acidic environments and at body temperatures. |
| How does inhibitory compounds affect enzyme function? | They compete with the substrate for the active site, bind to another site on the enzyme to change the shape of the active site, and metabolic pathways and feedback inhibition (many antibiotics, drugs, and poisons). |
| Energenics of photosynthesis | Photosynthesis converts kinetic energy (light) into potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of glucose. |
| Energenics of cellular respiration | Cellular respiration harvests the potential energy in glucose to make ATP. |
| The three stages of glucose metabolism | Glycolysis, cellular respiration (citric acid cycle), electron transport chain. |
| What is glycolysis | Anaerobic process, "splitting of the sugar," a molecule of glucose is split into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. |
| What are the two parts of cellular respiration? | citric acid cycle and electron transport chain |
| Cellular Respiration | Aerobic process in which glucose molecules are broken down into CO2 and H2O. The energy in the chemical bonds of glucose is converted into ATP by 3 processes. |
| The 3 processes of cellular respiration | 1) Acetyl coA is produced (one NAHD produced for each pyruvate), 2) Krebs cycle- citric acid cycle (3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP produced for each pyruvate- double for each glucose), 3) electron transport chain (use high energy electron carriers (10 NADH and FADH2 electron carriers in steps 1 and 2 to generate ATP). |
| Electron transport chain | Found in the inner mitochondrial membrane, energy used to pump hydrogen ions out of the mitochondrial matrix (against the gradient). Oxygen is the final electron acceptor. |
| Cyanide | Binds to the third protein complex (cytochrome C oxidase) and prevents oxygen from accepting electrons (your cells sufficate). |
| Fermentation | The body can make ATP without oxygen using glycolysis alone, but only for short periods and it is not very efficient (requires NAD+). NAD+ (pyruvate) regenerates by creating lactic acid or alcohol. |
| Photosynthesis | Cells capture solar energy and store it as chemical energy, the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose (oxygen is a by-product). Endergonic reaction. |
| Where does photosynthesis occur? | In the leaves of plants, more specifically, in chloroplasts. Leaves are thin and flat to capture light. |
| The purpose of veins in leaves | Carry water to the leaf |
| The purpose of the stomata | Gas exchange; gets CO2 and breathes out O2. |
| Chloroplast structure | Found within the interior cells, organized into thylakoid, stacked into granum, and the surrounding area is the stroma. Has an inner and outer membrane. |
| Where in chloroplasts does photosynthesis occur? | In the thylakoid and stroma. |
| How do plants get their pigment? | Pigments in the thylakoid membranes absorb light. Chlorophyll is the primary pigment. Accessory pigments also collect light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll (carotenoids and phycocyanins). |
| The effect of the electromagnetic spectrum | Pigments harvest light in the visible range. The longer the wavelength the less damaging. Wavelengths of light are absorbed and the light that isn't absorbed is reflected. |
| Photosynthesis- light-dependent reactions | Light behaves as discrete packages of energy- photons- harvest light, pass electromagnetic energy to transfer molecules (increase the energy state), occurs in the thylakoid membranes. |
| What happens to photons during light-dependent reactions and what products are produced? | Photons excite electrons to a higher energy state. This higher energy state is unstable and electrons quickly lose the energy to drop back into a stable structure. ATP and NADPH are created. |
| Photosynthesis- light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) | Uses energy stored in chemical bonds of the products pf light-dependent reactions (ATP, NADPH). Known as "carbon fixation." Occurs in the stroma. |
| Carbon fixation | Refers to any process through which atmospheric carbon dioxide gas is converted into a solid compound. |
| Primary productivity | The amount of carbon converted by photosynthesis per unit area and time is a measure of primary productivity. Primarily limited by light, nutrient availability, and water (why we use fertilizer). |
| What is DNA? | DeoxyriboNucleic Acid- the molecule of heredity, nearly all living things have DNA, some use RNA (like viruses), stores biological information and carries the instructions (genes) for making proteins. |
| What is the basic building block of DNA? | Nucleotides. DNA is composed of only 4 different nucleotides. |
| complementary base pairing of DNA | Adenine only binds with Thymine and Cytosine only binds with Guanine. |
| What is the structure of DNA? | Has a hierarchical structure (the amino acid is the primary structure). DNA -> RNA -> Protein |
| what does the DNA helicase do? | Breaks down hydrogen bonds between the bases to separate the two strands. |
| what does DNA polymerase do? | Adds complementary bases to unpaired parental-strand bases. |
| what does DNA ligase do? | Connects short segments of DNA and creates the phosphodiester bond of the backbone. |
| In what form of the DNA strand can replication not occur? | When the DNA strand is in double stranded form. |
| Genes | Contain information for the synthesis of proteins. Some genes code for more than one polypeptide |
| What is the process of DNA transcribing into RNA? | DNA strand -> transcription -> RNA -> translation -> polypeptide |
| Transcription | Copying the DNA information into RNA |
| Translation | Translation of the ribonucleic acid into a sequence of amino acids |
| What are the three major differences between DNA and RNA? | RNA is composed of a single strand of nucleotide bases, RNA uses ribose as the sugar while DNA uses deoxyribose, and RNA uses uracil in place of thymine. |
| What are the three types of RNA? | messenger (m) RNA, ribosomal (r) RNA, transfer (t) RNA |
| mRNA (messenger RNA) | Carries the information to make a protein |
| rRNA (ribosomal RNA) | Found in the ribosomes and is important for translation. |
| tRNA (transfer RNA) | Carries amino acids to the site of protein synthesis. |
| What are the three steps in the process of transcription? | Initiation, elongation, and termination. |
| Initiation- transcription | The components need to transcribe DNA into RNA and assemble. It uses RNA polymerase (no helicase needed). |
| Elongation- transcription | RNA nucleotides are joined using the DNA as a template. |
| Termination- transcription | Transcription ends and the components disassemble. |
| Where does protein synthesis occur? | at the ribosomes. |
| Mutations | Changes in the sequence of the bases in a DNA molecule. Can be neutral or negative. |
| Why do mutations occur | Mistake in base pairing during DNA replication, random events, chemicals and radiation. |
| Mutagen | Causes mutation in reproductive cells (pass on to offspring) or in somatic cells (cause cancer). |
| What are the two categories of mutations? | Nucleotide substitution and frameshift mutation. |
| Where does glycolysis occur in the cell? | Cytosol |
| Where does cellular respiration occur in the cell? | Glycolysis is in the cytoplasm and the rest is in the mitochondria |
| What are the reactants and products of photosynthesis? | CO2 + H2O are the reactants. The products are glucose and oxygen. |
| What are the reactants and products of Acetyl CoA formation? | 2 pyruvates for reactants. Carbon dioxide, ATP, NADH, FADH2 for the products. |
| What molecule enters the Krebs cycle? | Pyruvic acid and NADH enters the Krebs cycle- happens in the mitochondrial matrix. |
| How many NADH, FADH2, and ATP are produced per Acetyl CoA? How many if you start from one molecule of glucose? | There are 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP produced per acetyl CoA. Total 10 NADH, 2 FADH2 and 4 ATP total for glucose. Net of 30-34 ATP net at the end of cellular respiration. |
| Asexual reproduction | Only involves one parent, does not use sex cells or fertilization, identical to parent. |
| What are the advantages of asexual reproduction? | It requires less energy, it can occur in different environments, requires less time, only requires a single individual, and the offspring is identical. |
| Sexual reproduction | The fusion of a haploid female gamete (egg cell) and haploid male gamete (sperm egg) to reproduce an offspring. |
| What are the advantages of sexual reproduction? | Produces genetic variation in the offspring, species can adapt to new environments due to variation, survival advantage. |
| What happens in binary fission? | Prokaryotes dividing their cells into two. |
| What is the order of the cell cycle? | Interphase, late prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and then interphase again. |
| Interphase | In late interphase the duplicated chromosomes are relaxed and extended. Centrioles duplicate and cluster near the nucleus (the daughter cells enter interphase after mitosis). |
| Early prophase | Chromosomes condense and shorten, centrosome duplicates near nucleus, spindle microtubules extend from the centrioles. |
| Late prophase | Nuclear envelop breaks down, centrioles migrate towards opposite poles, spindle fibers attach to the sister chromatids at the centromeres, nucleus disappears |
| Metaphase | Mitotic spindle is now fully formed, spindle microtubules line up the chromatids at the equator of the cell. |
| Anaphase | Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell, free spindle microtubules (those not attached to chromatids) lengthen and push the poles apart. |
| Telophase | The chromosomes relax at each pole, nuclear envelops form around each set of chromosomes, spindle fibers start to disappear |
| Cytokinesis | The division of the cytoplasm forming two new cells. Each daughter cell contains one nucleus and one half of the cytoplasm from the parent cell. |
| Karyotype | The entire set of chromosomes |
| How many pairs of chromosomes do we have? | 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes, a total of 23 chromosomes |
| Homologous chromosomes | Chromosome pairs with genes for the same characteristics at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's mother; the other from the organism's father (while similar, they are not identical copies). |
| Sister chromatids | One of two identical parts of a duplicated chromosome. While joined, two sister chromatids make up one chromosome. |
| Why is cell division a fundamental process? | It is necessary to replace worn out cells in multicellular organisms, required for growth in multicellular organisms, necessary for reproduction in unicellular or multicellular organisms. |
| Centromere | DNA replication produces a duplicated chromosome during the S phase of interphase. The duplicated chromosomes can attach to each other here. |
| Haploid | (n) one copy of each chromosome |
| Diploid | (2n) is two copies of each chromosome- these are homologues |
| What is the primary pigment involved in photosynthesis? | Chlorophyll |
| How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related? Does cellular respiration occur in plants? | Cellular respiration does occur in plants. Photosynthesis creates glucose and oxygen which is used in cellular respiration to make carbon dioxide and water which is used in photosynthesis. |
| What are the 4 nucleotides of DNA? | Adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guatamine |
| Why do some mutations change the protein that is produced, but other mutations do not? | DNA can’t leave the nucleus and need to get the information into the cytoplasm using mRNA. If DNA replication made a mistake and changes the codon and anticodon the word changes, and it changes the protein. Usually changes the structure as well. If the mutation is in the base pair it could be the same, there are more words then there are amino acids because anything that starts with the first two letters determines what is formed. That is a silent mutation. Matters where the mutation is and what kind of mutation it is. |
| What is the difference between alcohol and lactate fermentation? | Fermentation pathway is anaerobic process starts with glucose and splits it into pyruvic acid, then make 2 ATP and 2 NADH and convert pyruvic acid into lactic acid to make more NADH +. Lactic acid converts NADH to NADH+. Makes alcohol and CO2, why its bubbly- has the carbon dioxide. Alcohol made from the pyruvic acid. The difference is the end product made. |
| How many molecules of ATP can be produced from one molecule under aerobic conditions? Anaerobic conditions? Why? | Generate around 32-38 ATP and 2 NADH from one glucose molecule under aerobic conditions. 2 ATP is generated for anaerobic conditions but can’t be used without oxygen, only NADH because you need oxygen to use the ATP. That NADH is used to create lactic acid to continue making NADH. |
| What are autotrophs? | Self-feeders that convert sunlight to food |
| What are heterotrophs? | Get food from other species to make energy |
| Producers vs consumers | Producers make food and consumers consume foods. |
| Why is one strand of DNA (leading strand) generated continuously whereas the other strand (lagging strand) generated discontinuously in small stretches? | The DNA polymerase has to replicate on the leading strand, leading strand opens up more nucleotides on the leading strand to the left, lagging only adding nucleotides so much because of the direction it is moving, it is not continuous like the leading strand. |
| Anticodon | A trinucleotide sequence complementary to that of a corresponding codon in a mRNA |
| Mitosis | Results in 2 genetically identical eukaryotic daughter cells (clones), pccurs in somatic tissues, asexual reproduction |
| Importance of mitosis | Allows an organism to grow, regenerate (repair) damaged tissues or body parts, and replace malfunctioning or dead cells |
| Meiosis | Results in halving of the chromosome number in preparation for fertilization, shuffles genes in new combinations, results in genetically different cells, sexual reproduction |
| Genetic recombination | crossing over creates chromosomes with novel combinations of genetic material |
| What are the three steps in DNA translation? Where does this process occur? | Initiation- process has to start, getting all of the components together, need the mRNA and the ribosomes to start to form, like a hamburger patty. Elongation- Start building protein using tRNA and building the protein with amino acids. Termination- reaches a stop codon. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm on ribosomes. |
