AS/A-level psychology; Maz et al. (2024/25)
UNFINISHED!!!! Will be updated gradually. Flashcard mode recommended. 2024/25 A-level/AS psychology flashcards.
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AS/A-level psychology; Maz et al. (2024/25) - Leaderboard
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| What is conformity? | Type of social influence involving a change in belief or behaviour in order to fit in with a group. This change is in response to real or imagined social pressure. |
| NA | NA |
| What are the two explanations for conformity? | Normative social influence and informational social influence. |
| Define the two explanations for conformity? | Normative - (the desire to be liked) when we conform fit in with the group because we don't want to appear foolish or be left out. Informational - (the desire to be right) when we conform because we are unsure of the situation, so we look to others who we believe may have more knowledge than us. |
| Name the types of conformity in order from deepest to shallowest. | Internalisation, identification, compliance |
| Explain the shallowest type of conformity. | Compliance - Individuals go along with the group to gain approval/avoid disapproval. When exposed to the views/action of the majority, individuals engage in social comparison, concentrating on what others do or say and adjust themselves to fit in. Fitting in is seen as desirable and so motivates conformity. |
| Explain the middlest type of conformity. | Identification - The individual accepts influence because they want to be associated with another group/because membership of that group is beneficial. By adopting the group's attitudes or behaviours, they feel more a part of it. The individual accepts the attitudes they are adopting as true but the purpose of that is to be socially accepted. |
| Explain the deepest type of conformity. | Internalisation - Individuals go along with the group because of an acceptance of their views. When exposed to group views, individuals are encouraged to engage in a validation process. This is where they examine their own beliefs to see if they or others are right. Close examination of the group's position may convince the individual they are wrong and the group is right. Leads to acceptance of group views publicly and privately. |
| Evaluation points of types of social influence in terms of research support and individual differences. | . + Asch (1951): interviews with ptts showed fears of looking odd/changed answers privately which validates normative social influence (NSI) . + Lucas et al: found that ppts conformed more when questions were harder which validates informational social influence (ISI) . - Asch (1955): unclear whether dissenter reduces rates of conformity by reducing power of NSI or reducing power of ISI, so may work together in real life situations . - McGhee and Teevan: some people = more concerned with being liked so NSI explanation for conformity may be able to explain conformity for only some, so may not be generalisable to all. |
| Name the three situational variables affecting conformity. | Group size, unanimity, task difficulty |
| What was the aim of the key study concerning the variables affecting conformity? | To investigate how far social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. |
| What are the main points of the procedure to Asch's base study on conformity? | .Sample: 123 male, US undergraduate students .7 ptts (all but the 2nd to last = confederate) .Group asked to do an unambiguous line judgement task .Each confederate had to state the same wrong but unanimous answer .18 trials total |
| What were the findings of Asch's base study on conformity? | 33% of genuine ptts agreed with confederates' incorrect answers. (75% of ptts conformed on at least one trial). 25% never conformed in any trials. |
| What was the conclusion of Asch's base study on conformity? | Most said they conformed (not because they believed the majority but) because they feared being ridiculed. (Few said that they actually believed the answers). |
| Summarise the evaluation points for Asch's base study on conformity? | - Lack temporal validity (1950's > anti-Soviet movement = scared of not complying) - Low internal validity (actors = not believable so ptts instead respond to demand characteristics but Mori + Arai filtered glasses fix) - Lacks population validity (conformity higher in collectivist cultures than individualist |
| What variations were there on Asch's study on conformity? | Added a dissenter, made the task more difficult, and bigger/smaller group size. |
| How did adding a dissenter affect the rate of conformity in Asch's study? | If dissenter gave an answer different to the majority but also not correct, conformity dropped to 9%. If ptt given support by dissenter (or other real ptt) who gave correct answer conformity dropped to 5%. |
| True or false: Most participants in Asch's study conformed privately but not publicly. | False: Most participants conformed publicly but not privately. |
| How does the difficulty of the task affect the rate of conformity in Asch's study? | Task more difficult = rate of conformity increase |
| How did the group size affect conformity? | As a majority's size increased, so did the level of conformity, until a maximum level after which increases in group size did not increase unanimity. |
| How did the group size affect conformity? | As a majority's size increased, so did the level of conformity, until a maximum level after which increases in group size did not increase unanimity. |
| Evaluation of Asch's studies in terms of validity and cultural differences. | . -1950's USA = strong anti-communist movement so people scared of not conforming. ALSO Perrin and Spencer repeated study in 80's UK and only 1/396 conformed (low temporal validity). HOWEVER when tested on youths on probation and their probation officers, similar levels to Asch's found = higher risk to not conforming makes conforming rate higher . - Hard for confederates to act convincingly when giving wrong answer HOWEVER Mori and Arai gave ppts filtered glasses so the majority's answer was more convincing; only female ptts' results closely matched results OG Asch study . - Smith et al: conformity % in collective = 37% vs individualistic = 25% because different cultures view conformity differently so research lacks population validity |
| What are the four affects of institutionalisation on infants? | Poor parenting, disinhibited attachment, physical underdevelopment, intellectual underdevelopment. |
| Who studied whether good quality care after adoption can make up for very poor early institutional experiences? | Rutter (2007) |
| What are the characteristics of the disinhibited attachment style? | Overfriendly/inappropriate familiarity with strangers, and attention seeking from all adults including strangers. |
| Who assessed institutionalised children for physical, cognitive and social development? | Rutter and Sonuga-Barke |
| Are the affects of institutionalisation in children reversable? | Yes, if given sensitive, good quality care within a sensitive period which Rutter concludes is before 2 1/2 years. |
| What are the 4 stages of attachment according to Shaffer? | Asocial, Indiscriminate, Discriminate, Multiple |
| What behaviours characterise the asocial stage of attachment? | .Similar responses to all objects, animate or inanimate .Reciprocity and interactional synchrony help establish a relationship with others .Begin to show greater preference for social stimuli towards end of period |
| Between what ages is the asocial stage of attachment? | From birth to 2 months |
| What behaviours characterise the indiscriminate stage of attachment? | .Become more social and prefer human company to inanimate objects .Can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people .Do not yet show stranger anxiety/can be comforted by anyone .Enjoy being with people (general sociability) |
| What behaviours characterise the discriminate stage of attachment? | .Shows stranger anxiety .Shows separation anxiety .Form a specific attachment to primary attachment figure |
| Shaffer and Emerson found that the primary care figure will be the person who does what? | Responds quickly and sensitively to the infant's signals (shows sensitive responsiveness). |
| What percentage of children will have their mothers be their primary caregiver (sole and joint)? | 65% sole / further 30% joint |
| What percentage of children will have their fathers be their primary caregiver (sole and joint)? | 3% sole / 27% joint |
| Name the 2 key caregiver-infant interactions. | Reciprocity and interactional synchrony |
| Name 4 behaviours shown by infants when attached to a primary care giver. | Proximity seeking, secure base behaviours, clinging, separation anxiety |
| Define reciprocity in terms of caregiver-infant interactions.. | A description of how two people interact; the caregiver and infant respond to each other's signals/eliciting responses from each other. "Taking turns/two way". |
| Define interactional synchrony in terms of caregiver-infant interactions. | Caregiver and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a coordinated (synchronised) way. |
| Define attachment. | The strong emotional bond/relationship between two people, it is a reciprocal (two way) process that endures. Leads to behaviours such as proximity seeking and clinging. It serves the purpose of protecting an infant. |
| What did Meltzoff and Moore (1977) find in terms of interactional synchrony? | Infants ages 2-3 weeks imitated facial expressions of adults, this supports that interactional synchrony help form attachments. |
| What was the aims of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study in attachment? | To investigate the development of attachment, including the age at which infants become attached, who they attach to and whether its possible to develop multiple attachments. |
| What was the procedure of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study in attachment? | .Longitudinal study on 60 Glaswegian infants over first 18 months of their lives .Visited the children at monthly intervals in their own homes and observed their interactions with their caregivers .Mothers were interviewed about the infant's behaviour in relation to separation and stranger anxiety |
| What were the findings of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study in attachment? | .First attachment usually formed between 6 + 8 months .Mother was main attachment figure for 65% of the children at 18 months old, 3% of the infants developed primary attachment to their father |
| Evaluation points of the validity of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study into interactional synchrony. | . - internal validity: mothers might be more/less sensitive to infant's protests so may report higher/lower distress . + ecological validity: research conducted in homes and infants don't recognise they're being recorded so don't respond to demand characteristics and reactions would e mostly reflective of real life . - temporal validity: in '64 women = stay at home etc. now they work more + paternity leave means that the %'s of the main attachment figures may be different . - population validity: Sagi et al (1994) found that multiple attachments were more common/didn't have as close relationship with birth mother in collectivist societies |
| What experiment is most commonly used to assess the attachment type of infants/the quality of attachment between the infant and mother? | The Strange Situation |
| Who were the researchers behind the Strange Situation experiment? | Ainsworth and Bell (1978) |
| What behaviours in the infant are measured in the Strange Situation experiment? | Proximity seeking, joy of reunion, stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, secure base, exploration. |
| List the people who are in the room in each episode of the Strange Situation experiment. | 1. Infant and mother 2. Infant, mother and stranger 3. Infant and stranger 4. Infant 5. Infant and stranger 6. Infant, mother and stranger 7. Infant and mother |
| What key behaviours are observed in infants with a secure attachment in the Strange Situation experiment? | .Were distressed when their mother leaves .Is avoidant of the stranger when alone but friendly when mother is present .Is easily comforted when mother returns/positive joy of reunion .Will use mother as a safe base to explore their environment |
| What key behaviours are observed in infants with an insecure-resistant attachment in the Strange Situation experiment? | .Shows signs of intense distress when separated from mother .Infant avoids and shows fear of the stranger .When reunited with mother, child approaches but resists contact + may even push her away .Infant cries more and explores less than other two attachment types |
| What key behaviours are observed in infants with an insecure-avoidant attachment in the Strange Situation experiment? | .Infant shows no signs of distress when separated from mother .Infant is okay with the stranger and plays normally when stranger is present .Infant shows little interest when mother returns/no joy of reunion .Mother and stranger are able to comfort the infant equally well |
| What sample is used in the Strange Situation experiment? | 100 middle class American infants and their mothers. |
| What was the setting for the Strange Situation experiment? | A 'novel' (9 x 9) room/ a new play environment for the infant. Many toys and a neutral colour. |
| How was data collected in the Strange Situation experiment? | Video recorder or one-way mirror. |
| What percentage of infants were observed to have the secure attachment type (UK and US %)? | 60-75% (UK) / 70% (US) |
| What percentage of infants were observed to have the insecure-resistant attachment type (UK and US %)? | 3% (UK) / 15% (US) |
| What percentage of infants were observed to have the insecure-avoidant attachment type (UK and US %)? | 20-25% (UK) / 15% (US) |
| What researcher studied attachment in goslings? | Lorenz (1935) |
| Outline key points of Lorenz's procedure when studying attachment is goslings. | .He randomly divided gosling eggs into 2 groups; one group stayed with their mother and the other were kept in a incubator to hatch .Incubator group: Lorenz was the first living being they saw .When all hatched, the groups were marked and then mixed |
| What were the key findings of Lorenz's research? | .Goslings quickly divided up; incubated ones followed Lorenz and showed no recognition of natural mother .Observed a critical period; if young animal not exposed to a persistently moving object within the first 2 days of birth, it wont imprint at all |
| Outline key points of Harlow's procedure when studying attachment is Rhesus monkeys. | .2 wire mothers with different heads, one wrapped in soft cloth .8 infant rhesus monkeys studied over 165 days, 4 with bottle on cloth/wire mother .Monkeys exposed to frightening mechanical teddy bear .Amount of time spent with each mother was observed |
| What were the key findings of Harlow's research? | .All monkeys spent more time with cloth mother, regardless of whether or not it had a bottle .Those fed by wire mother quickly returned to cloth mother afterwards .When frightened monkeys clung to cloth mother .When playing with new objects monkeys kept one foot on cloth mother for reassurance |
| Name some long term effects of Harlow's study on the Rhesus monkeys. | Socially abnormal, sexually abnormal (had to be artificially inseminated), didn't cradle own infants/violent towards own infants |
| Explain the sensitive period observed by Harlow. | Infant monkeys could recover if exposed to peers before 3 months old, but wouldn't recover if didn't have any exposure to other monkeys for more than 6 months. |
| Name and define the long term effects of Lorenz's study on the goslings. | Imprinting - an innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother that is irreversible and long lasting. Sexual imprinting - animals choose to mate with the same type of object upon which they were imprinted. |
| Evaluation points into animal studies of attachment in terms of internal validity and generalisability. | . - Harlow: The cloth mother had a more attractive/monkey-like face = confounding variable = low internal validity . - Harlow: Human behaviours (towards caregivers) may be more under our conscious control compared to monkeys so lacks generalisability thus lacks validity . + Harlow: Support by Schaffer and Emerson who say that a primary attachment figure is more likely to be the caregiver who showed sensitive responsiveness = conformt may be more important than feeding . +/- Lorenz: Support by Guitton (1966) that found that leghorn chicks imprinted to yellow rubber gloves and tried to mate with them, HOWEVER after spending time with their own species the effects of imprinting reversed |
| What is the purpose of social releasers? | To activate the adult attachment system – make the adult feel love towards the baby, encouraging protection. |
| Give some examples of social releasers. | Behaviours: Smiling, cooing, laughing, gripping. Features: Big eyes, small button nose. |
| Why does Bowlby believe attachments are formed? | They are a survival mechanism; an infant who is not attached is less well protected. This stems back to evolution. |
| What is meant by a 'critical period' in terms of Bowlby's Monotropic theory? | A period of which if infants don't form an attachment in that time, they will struggle to form attachments later on. |
| Between what ages is the critical period/time of which the infant attachment system is active? | From birth till 2 years |
| Give an example of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality. | IQ - those that have an IQ of below 70 (2% of the population) are considered to have Intellectual Disability Disorder + The IQ scale has normal distribution. |
| Define statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality. | A person's trait, thinking or behaviour that would be considered to be an indication of abnormality if it was found to be numerically (statistically) rare/uncommon/anomalous. |
| Define deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality. | A person's trait, thinking or behaviour that would be considered to be an indication of abnormality if it is seen as anything that defies unstated rules of how one 'ought' to be. Some of these rules are implicit whereas some are policed by law. |
| Give an example of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality. | Homosexuality was once considered abnormal and was illegal in the UK/was only taken out of the DSM in 1986. |
| Define failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality. | A person's trait, thinking or behaviour that would be considered to be an indication of abnormality if it negatively affected their ability to go about their daily life and caused themself/others distress. |
| Give an example of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality. | People suffering from depression would score high on the WHODAS (World Health Organisation Disability Assessment) in categories like self-care or life activities. |
| What are the 6 categories of the WHODAS? | Understanding + communicating, getting around, self-care, getting along with people, life activities, participation in society. |
| Define deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality. | A person's trait, thinking or behaviour that would be considered to be an indication of abnormality if it was showed signs that they are lacking in ideal mental health. |
| Who suggested the deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality? | Marie Jahoda (1958) |
| What were the 6 categories/characteristics that enable an individual to feel happy? | Self attitudes/Self-esteem, personal growth and self-actualisation, Integration, Autonomy, Accurate perception of reality, Mastery/adapting of the environment. |
| Name 3/4 behavioural characteristics of phobias. | .Panic in response to phobic stimulus (freezing/fainting) .Avoidance of phobic stimulus .Avoidance behaviour interferes significantly with a person's routine, job, social activities and relationships (This distinguishes phobias from fears) .Endurance of the phobic stimulus |
| Name 3 behavioural characteristics of depression. | Low activity levels, disruption to sleep and eating behaviour, aggression and self-harm. |
| Name 3 behavioural characteristics of OCD. | Compulsions are repetitive, compulsions reduce anxiety, avoidance of situations that trigger anxiety. |
| Name 3 emotional characteristics of phobias. | .Persistent fear .Anxiety and panic .Emotions are cued by the presence or anticipation of an object or situation and are out of proportion to the actual danger proposed |
| Name 3/4 emotional characteristics of depression. | .Symptoms MUST include continued low mood or loss of interest/pleasure in normal activities for a diagnosis – Anhedonia (loss of pleasure in activities that once were pleasurable) .Feeling empty .Feeling hopeless or helpless .Lack of interest/pleasure in activities can lead to despair |
| Name 3 cognitive characteristics of phobias. | .Irrational thinking and resistance to rational arguments .Recognition that their fear is excessive or unreasonable (not always in children) .This distinguishes the phobia from a delusional mental illness (e.g. schizophrenia) where individuals are not aware of the unreasonableness of their behaviour |
| Name 3 cognitive characteristics of depression. | .Low self-esteem, sense of worthlessness .Negative beliefs about the world (expect things to turn out badly) which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy .Negative beliefs about the self/world/future are irrational (don’t reflect reality) .Suicidal ideation |